May 5, 2026

Flex Tech

Innovation in Every Curve

Paper-based flexible electronic devices: processing, integration, and applications

Paper-based flexible electronic devices: processing, integration, and applications
  • Mao H. Y. RETRACTED: information processing methods of electronic warfare events based on communication technology (retracted article). Security and Communication Networks 2022 (2022).

  • Kim, S., Seo, J., Choi, J. & Yoo, H. Vertically integrated electronics: new opportunities from emerging materials and devices. Nano-Micro Lett. 14, 201 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C., He, T., Zhou, H., Zhang, Z. & Lee, C. Artificial intelligence enhanced sensors—enabling technologies to next-generation healthcare and biomedical platform. Bioelectron. Med. 9, 17 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gomez‐Gijon, S., Ortiz‐Gómez, I. & Rivadeneyra, A. Paper‐based electronics: toward sustainable electronics. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 9, 2400486 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Deroco, P. B., Wachholz, D., Jr. & Kubota, L. T. Paper-based wearable electrochemical sensors: a new generation of analytical devices. Electroanalysis 35 (2023).

  • Thakur, A. & Devi, P. Paper-based flexible devices for energy harvesting, conversion and storage applications: a review. Nano Energy 94, 106927 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Z. et al. Innovative modification of cellulose fibers for paper-based electrode materials using metal-organic coordination polymers. Int. J. Biol. Macromolecules 264, 130599 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, S. M., Nassar, J. M. & Hussain, M. M. Paper as a substrate and an active material in paper electronics. Acs Appl. Electron. Mater. 3, 30–52 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kloppenburg, G. et al. Identifying microstructural properties of paper. Pamm 23, e202300251 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Conti, S. et al. Low-voltage 2D materials-based printed field-effect transistors for integrated digital and analog electronics on paper. Nat. Commun. 11, 3566 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ataide, V. N., Mendes, L. F., Gama, L. I. L. M., de Araujo, W. R. & Paixão, T. R. L. C. Electrochemical paper-based analytical devices: ten years of development. Anal. Methods 12, 1030–1054 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiong C. Y. et al. Recent research progress of paper-based supercapacitors based on cellulose. Energy Environ. Mater. 7 (2024).

  • Xue, Z., Gai, Y., Wu, Y., liu, Z. & Li, Z. Wearable mechanical and electrochemical sensors for real-time health monitoring. Commun. Mater. 5, 211 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Z., Liu, J., Liu, Y. & Zhu, N. High-speed photodetectors in optical communication system. J. Semicond. 38, 121001 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Samantaray, S., Mohanty, D., Hung, I. M., Moniruzzaman, M. & Satpathy, S. K. Unleashing recent electrolyte materials for next-generation supercapacitor applications: a comprehensive review. J. Energy Storage 72, 108352 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Alahmad, W., Cetinkaya, A., Kaya, S. I., Varanusupakul, P. & Ozkan, S. A. Electrochemical paper-based analytical devices for environmental analysis: current trends and perspectives. Trends Environ. Anal. Chem. 40, e00220 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustafa, F., Finny, A. S., Kirk, K. A. & Andreescu, S. In Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry Vol. 89 (ed. Merkoçi, A.) 63–89 (Elsevier, 2020).

  • Ho, D. et al. Enabling technologies for personalized and precision medicine. Trends Biotechnol. 38, 497–518 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lay, M., Say, M. G. & Engquist, I. Direct ink writing of nanocellulose and PEDOT:PSS for flexible electronic patterned and supercapacitor papers. Adv. Mater. Technol. 8 (2023).

  • Casula, G. et al. Printed, low-voltage, all-organic transistors and complementary circuits on paper substrate. Adv. Electron. Mater. 6 (2020).

  • Morais, R. et al. Influence of paper surface characteristics on fully inkjet printed PEDOT:PSS-based electrochemical transistors. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 36, 125005 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Vicente, A. et al. Multifunctional cellulose-paper for light harvesting and smart sensing applications. J. Mater. Chem. C 6, 3143–3181 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yao, B. et al. Paper-based electrodes for flexible energy storage devices. Adv. Sci. 4, 1700107 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, X. et al. Highly durable and flexible paper electrode with a dual fiber matrix structure for high-performance supercapacitors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 13096–13106 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansson, E. et al. Suitability of paper-based substrates for printed electronics. Materials 15 (2022).

  • Wei, Y. et al. Fully paper-integrated hydrophobic and air permeable piezoresistive sensors for high-humidity and underwater wearable motion monitoring. Npj Flex. Electron. 7, 13 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • De Medeiros, M. S., Chanci, D. & Martinez, R. V. Moisture-insensitive, self-powered paper-based flexible electronics. Nano Energy 78, 105301 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Böhm, A. & Biesalski, M. Paper-based microfluidic devices: a complex low-cost material in high-tech applications. Mrs Bull. 42, 356–364 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Noviana, E. et al. Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices: from design to applications. Chem. Rev. 121, 11835–11885 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liang, A. X. & Chen, X. Y. A non-contact porous composite fiber paper-based humidity sensor for wearable breathing and skin humidity monitoring. J. Mater. Chem. A 12, 29081–29091 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, X. Q. et al. Calligraphy and kirigami/origami-inspired all-paper touch-temperature sensor with stimulus discriminability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15 (2023).

  • Ma, H. et al. Programmable and flexible wood-based origami electronics. Nat. Commun. 15, 9272 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gopi, S., Balakrishnan, P., Chandradhara, D., Poovathankandy, D. & Thomas, S. General scenarios of cellulose and its use in the biomedical field. Mater. Today Chem. 13, 59–78 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. et al. A stiffness-switchable, biomimetic smart material enabled by supramolecular reconfiguration. Adv. Mater. 34 (2022).

  • De France, K. J., Hoare, T. & Cranston, E. D. Review of hydrogels and aerogels containing nanocellulose. Chem. Mater. 29, 4609–4631 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y. et al. Bacterial cellulose-based composite scaffolds for biomedical applications: a review. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 7536–7562 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, K. et al. Recent advances in cellulose and its derivatives for oilfield applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 259, 117740 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, D. et al. Cellulose‐based flexible functional materials for emerging intelligent electronics. Adv. Mater. 33, 2000619 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, W. et al. Sustainable cellulose and its derivatives for promising biomedical applications. Prog. Mater. Sci. 138, 101152 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H. et al. Nanocellulose-graphene composites: Preparation and applications in flexible electronics. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 253, 126903 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Manimaran, M. et al. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites. Nanotechnol. Rev. 13 (2024).

  • Varnaite-Zuravliova, S. & Baltusnikaite-Guzaitiene, J. Properties, production, and recycling of regenerated cellulose fibers: special medical applications. J. Funct. Biomater. 15 (2024).

  • Ghaffar, A. et al. In Regenerated Cellulose and Composites: Morphology-Property Relationship (ed. Mohd S.) 347–379 (Springer Nature Singapore, 2023).

  • Acharya, S. et al. Utilization of cellulose to its full potential: a review on cellulose dissolution, regeneration, and applications. Polymers 13 (2021).

  • Kassie, B. B., Daget, T. M. & Tassew, D. F. Synthesis, functionalization, and commercial application of cellulose-based nanomaterials: A review [J]. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 278, 134990 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Aziz, T. et al. A review on the modification of cellulose and its applications. Polymers 14, 3206 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M. et al. Modulation and Mechanisms of Cellulose-Based Hydrogels for Flexible Sensors. SusMat 5, e255 (2025)

  • Mihut, D. M. & Afshar, A. Electrically assisted silver and copper coated filter papers with enhanced bactericidal effects. Colloids Surf. A—Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 606, 125428 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, L., Liu, H., Peng, F. & Qi, H. Efficient and portable cellulose-based colorimetric test paper for metal ion detection. Carbohydr. Polym. 274, 118635 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, F. et al. Fabrication of superhydrophobic and lyophobic paper for self-cleaning, moisture-proof and antibacterial activity. Appl. Surf. Sci. 598, 153639 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Koo, Y., Shanov, V. N. & Yun, Y. Carbon nanotube paper-based electroanalytical devices. Micromachines 7, 72 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao, P., Kasama, T., Shin, J., Huang, Y. & Miyake, R. A mediated enzymatic electrochemical sensor using paper-based laser-induced graphene. Biosens.-Basel 12, 995 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yan, G. et al. Vacuum filtration-coated silver electrodes coupled with stacked conductive multi-walled carbon nanotubes/mulberry paper sensing layers for a highly sensitive and wide-range flexible pressure sensor. Micromachines 15, 15 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, H. et al. Highly sensitive paper-based force sensors with natural micro-nanostructure sensitive element. Nanomaterials 14, 358 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Say, M. G. et al. Scalable paper supercapacitors for printed wearable electronics. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14, 55850–55863 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pour, G. B., Ashourifar, H., Aval, L. F. & Solaymani, S. CNTs-supercapacitors: a review of electrode nanocomposites based on CNTs, graphene, metals, and polymers. Symmetry-Basel 15, 1179 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie, Y., Zhang, H., Hu, H. & He, Z. Large-scale production and integrated application of micro-supercapacitors. Chem.—A Eur. J. 30, 202304160 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, D., Song, L., Chen, Y. & Huang, W. Modeling thin film solar cells: from organic to perovskite. Adv. Sci. 7, 1901397 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pecunia, V. Efficiency and spectral performance of narrowband organic and perovskite photodetectors: a cross-sectional review. J. Phys.-Mater. 2, 042001 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, W. et al. Solvent-free fabrication of broadband WS2 photodetectors on paper. Opto-Electron. Adv. 6, 220101 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaur, M., Kumar, P. & Ghotra, H. S. A review on advances in photoelectrochemical (PEC-type) photodetectors: a trending thrust research area. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 49, 1095–1112 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, W. et al. Flexible all-organic, all-solution processed thin film transistor array with ultrashort channel. Sci. Rep. 6, 29055 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pan, T., Liu, S., Zhang, L. & Xie, W. Flexible organic optoelectronic devices on paper. Iscience 25, 103782 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nawaz, A., Merces, L., Ferro, L., Sonar, P. & Bufon, C. Impact of planar and vertical organic field-effect transistors on flexible electronics. Adv. Mater. 35, 2204804 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavallari, M. R. et al. Organic thin-film transistors as gas sensors: a review. Materials 14, 3 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleemann, H. Novel concepts for organic transistors: physics, device design, and applications. arXiv:2111.09430 (2021).

  • Nawaz, A., Merces, L., De Andrade, D. M., de Camargo, D. & Bof Bufon, C. C. Edge-driven nanomembrane-based vertical organic transistors showing a multi-sensing capability. Nat. Commun. 11, 841 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Negi, S., Mittal, P. & Kumar, B. Impact of different layers on performance of OLED. Microsyst. Technol. 24, 4981–4989 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Turkoglu, G., Cinar, M. E. & Ozturk, T. Triarylborane-based materials for OLED applications. Molecules 22, 1522 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeon, Y. et al. Sandwich-structure transferable free-form OLEDs for wearable and disposable skin wound photomedicine. Light-Sci. Appl. 8 (2019).

  • Pan, T. et al. A flexible, multifunctional, optoelectronic anticounterfeiting device from high-performance organic light-emitting paper. Light-Sci. Appl. 11 (2022).

  • De, B. et al. in Handbook of Nanocomposite Supercapacitor Materials Ii: Performance (ed. Kar, K. K.) 229–243 (Springer, 2020).

  • Cinti, S., Mazzaracchio, V., Cacciotti, I., Moscone, D. & Arduini, F. Carbon black-modified electrodes screen-printed onto paper towel, waxed paper, and parafilm M®. Sensors 17 (2017).

  • Lee, J. et al. Regenerative strategy of gold electrodes for long-term reuse of electrochemical biosensors. Acs Omega 8, 1389–1400 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, J. et al. Application of copper-sulfur compound electrode materials in supercapacitors. Molecules 29, 977 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liang, D. et al. High mass loading paper-based electrode material with cellulose fibers under coordination of zirconium oxyhydroxide nanoparticles and sulfosalicylic acid. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 244, 125414 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dungchai, W., Chailapakul, O. & Henry, C. S. A low-cost, simple, and rapid fabrication method for paper-based microfluidics using wax screen-printing. Analyst 136, 77–82 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thongkam, T. & Hemavibool, K. A simple epoxy resin screen-printed paper-based analytical device for detection of phosphate in soil. Anal. Methods 14, 1069–1076 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mettakoonpitak, J. et al. Simple biodegradable plastic screen-printing for microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 331, 129463 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzaracchio, V. et al. A smart paper-based electrochemical sensor for reliable detection of iron ions in serum. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 415, 1149–1157 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun, S. et al. Multifunctional self-driven origami paper-based integrated microfluidic chip to detect CRP and PAB in whole blood. Biosensors Bioelectron 208 (2022).

  • Nair, R. R. Organic electrochemical transistor on paper for the detection of halide anions in biological analytes. Flex. Print. Electron. 5, 045004 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamarudin, S. F., Abdul Aziz, N. H., Lee, H. W., Jaafar, M. & Sulaiman, S. Inkjet printing optimization: toward realization of high-resolution printed electronics. Adv. Mater. Technol. 9 (2024).

  • Li, X., Tian, J., Garnier, G. & Shen, W. Fabrication of paper-based microfluidic sensors by printing. Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 76, 564–570 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maejima, K., Tomikawa, S., Suzuki, K. & Citterio, D. Inkjet printing: an integrated and green chemical approach to microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Rsc Adv. 3, 9258–9263 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  • Deng, Y., Li, Q., Zhou, Y. & Qian, J. Fully inkjet printing preparation of a carbon dots multichannel microfluidic paper-based sensor and its application in food additive detection. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 57084–57091 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, S., Wang, Z. & Feng, L. Inkjet-printed paper-based sensor array for highly accurate pH sensing. Analytica Chim. Acta 1154, 338275 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, B. et al. Flexible cellulose paper-based biosensor from inkjet printing for non-invasive glucose monitoring. Polym. Test. 137, 108527 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X. et al. Intriguing properties of graphite/polysiloxane composite-based pencil electrodes. Electrochim. Acta 475, 143615 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, J. et al. Beyond polypyrrole: pencil-drawn paper-based supercapacitors with high energy density. J. Electrochem. Soc. 169, 120517 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, G. et al. Paper supercapacitors by a solvent-free drawing method. Energy Environ. Sci. 4, 3368–3373 (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeasmin, S., Talukdar, S. & Mahanta, D. Paper based pencil drawn multilayer graphene-polyaniline nanofiber electrodes for all-solid-state symmetric supercapacitors with enhanced cyclic stabilities. Electrochim. Acta 389, 138660 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, D. S. et al. Sandpaper-based electrochemical devices assembled on a reusable 3D-printed holder to detect date rape drug in beverages. Talanta 232, 122408 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Orzari, L. O., de Araujo Andreotti, I. A., Bergamini, M. F., Marcolino, L. H. & Janegitz, B. C. Disposable electrode obtained by pencil drawing on corrugated fiberboard substrate. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 264, 20–26 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tonelli, D., Scavetta, E. & Gualandi, I. Electrochemical deposition of nanomaterials for electrochemical sensing. Sensors 19 (2019).

  • Pandit, B., Goda, E. S. & Shaikh, S. F. in Simple Chemical Methods For Thin Film Deposition: Synthesis And Applications 245–304 (Springer, 2023).

  • Huang, L. et al. Paper electrodes coated with partially-exfoliated graphite and polypyrrole for high-performance flexible supercapacitors. Polymers 10, 135 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexieva, G. Electrochemical Deposition: Properties and Applications (MDPI-Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 2024).

  • Gerard, O. et al. A review on the recent advances in binder-free electrodes for electrochemical energy storage application. J. Energy Storage 50, 104283 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, S. Y. et al. Direct fabrication of flexible Ni microgrid transparent conducting electrodes via electroplated metal transfer. Adv. Mater. Technol. 3, 1876–1883 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, L., Yu, S., Li, X., Wu, M. & Li, L. High-performance copper mesh transparent flexible conductors based on electroplating with vacuum-free processing. Org. Electron. 82, 105511 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiruthika, S. et al. Large area solution processed transparent conducting electrode based on highly interconnected Cu wire network. J. Mater. Chem. C 2, 2089–2094 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Y., Yan, C. & Zheng, Z. J. Polymer-assisted metal deposition (PAMD): a full-solution strategy for flexible, stretchable, compressible, and wearable metal conductors. Adv. Mater. 26, 5508–5516 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X. et al. Carbon black-induced edge guided-metal lateral electrodeposition and its application in paper-based flexible electronic devices. J. Mater. Chem. C 13, 2499–2507 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Velasco, A. et al. Laser-induced graphene microsupercapacitors: structure, quality, and performance. Nanomaterials 13, 788 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Imbrogno, A. et al. Laser-induced graphene supercapacitors by direct laser writing of cork natural substrates. Acs Appl. Electron. Mater. 4, 1541–1551 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Coelho, J. et al. Paper-based laser-induced graphene for sustainable and flexible microsupercapacitor applications. Microchim. Acta 190, 40 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvestre, S., Pinheiro, T. & Marques, A. Cork derived laser-induced graphene for sustainable green electronics. Flex. Print. Electron 7, 035021 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zang, X. et al. Laser‐induced molybdenum carbide–graphene composites for 3D foldable paper electronics. Adv. Mater. 30, 1800062 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Klem, M. S. et al. Electrochemical deposition of manganese oxide on paper-based laser-induced graphene for the fabrication of sustainable high-energy-density supercapacitors. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 8 (2024).

  • Abreu, R. et al. Direct laser writing of MnOx x decorated laser-induced graphene on paper for sustainable microsupercapacitor fabrication. Flatchem 46, 100672 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinheiro, T. et al. Laser‐induced graphene on paper toward efficient fabrication of flexible, planar electrodes for electrochemical sensing. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 8, 2101502 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, F. et al. Laser-induced graphene: preparation, functionalization and applications. Mater. Technol. 33, 340–356 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Guo, Y., Zhang, C., Chen, Y. & Nie, Z. Research progress on the preparation and applications of laser-induced graphene technology. Nanomaterials 12, 2336 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma, J. H., Qin, L. & Li, X. Recent advances in preparation and application of laser-induced graphene in energy storage devices. Mater. Today Energy 18, 33 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, J. B., Huang, X. & Song, W. X. Physical and chemical sensors on the basis of laser-induced graphene: mechanisms, applications, and perspectives. Acs Nano 15, 18708–18741 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Avinash, K. & Patolsky, F. Laser-induced graphene structures: from synthesis and applications to future prospects. Mater. Today 70, 104–136 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Menold, T. et al. Laser material processing optimization using Bayesian optimization: a generic tool. Light.: Adv. Manuf. 5, 355–365 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Valentine, C. J., Takagishi, K., Umezu, S., Daly, R. & De Volder, M. Based electrochemical sensors using paper as a scaffold to create porous carbon nanotube electrodes. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 30680–30685 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Papamatthaiou, S., Estrela, P. & Moschou, D. Printable graphene BioFETs for DNA quantification in Lab-on-PCB microsystems. Sci. Rep. 11, 9815 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Z. et al. Transparent, conductive carbon nanotube films. Science 305, 1273–1276 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ponlamuangdee, K. et al. Fabrication of paper-based SERS substrate using a simple vacuum filtration system for pesticides detection. Anal. Methods 14, 1765–1773 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, R., Zhang, X., Song, J., Cao, X. & Zhao, G. Preparation of whisker carbon nanotube composite paper by vacuum filtration method and its electrical heating performance. Carbon Lett. 34, 1–10 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, T. et al. Flexible MXene/bacterial cellulose film sound detector based on piezoresistive sensing mechanism. Acs Nano 16, 8461–8471 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, S. et al. Bioinspired nanostructured superwetting thin-films in a self-supported form enabled “miniature umbrella” for weather monitoring and water rescue. Nano-Micro Lett. 14, 1–16 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, W., Xiao, P., Zhang, C., Yang, Q. & Chen, T. Dynamic competitive strains enabled self-supporting Janus nanostructured films for high-performance airflow perception. Mater. Horiz. 10, 1264–1273 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xue, W. et al. Highly adhesive epidermal sensors with superior water-interference-resistance for aquatic applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 (2023).

  • Baptista, A., Silva, F., Porteiro, J., Míguez, J. & Pinto, G. Sputtering physical vapour deposition (PVD) coatings: a critical review on process improvement and market trend demands. Coatings 8, 402 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ihalainen, P. et al. supported nanostructured ultrathin gold film electrodes—characterization and functionalization. Appl. Surf. Sci. 329, 321–329 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma, Z. Y. Advances in graphene-assisted flexible substrate sensors for human motion monitoring. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 19, 46 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, S. R., De Lima, F., V. de Andrade, G. M. & Oriá R. B. Advancement in paper-based electrochemical biosensing and emerging diagnostic methods. Biosensors-Basel 13 (2023).

  • Yan-Qi, L. & Liang, F. Progress in paper-based colorimetric sensor array. Chin. J. Anal. Chem. 48, 1448–1457 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tai, H., Duan, Z., Wang, Y., Wang, S. & Jiang, Y. Paper-based sensors for gas, humidity, and strain detections: a review. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 31037–31053 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, X. et al Advances in paper-based photodetectors: fabrications, performances, and applications. Adv. Opt. Mater. 12 (2024).

  • Zhang, Y., Sezen, S., Ahmadi, M., Cheng, X. & Rajamani, R. Paper-based supercapacitive mechanical sensors. Sci. Rep. 8, 16284 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiong, C., Wang, T., Han, J., Zhang, Z. & Ni, Y. Recent Research Progress of Paper-Based Supercapacitors Based on Cellulose. Energy Environ. Mater. 7, e12651 (2024).

  • Ji, C. et al. A graphical pressure sensor array with multilayered structure based on graphene and paper substrate. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 307, 2100643 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasnain, M. et al. Ultrasensitive strain sensor based on graphite coated fibrous frameworks for security applications. CMater. Today Commun. 37, 106859 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, B. et al. Blade-coated porous 3d carbon composite electrodes coupled with multiscale interfaces for highly sensitive all-paper pressure sensors. Nano-Micro Lett. 16, 267 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Karmakar, R. S. et al. Origami-inspired conductive paper-based folded pressure sensor with interconnection scaling at the crease for novel wearable applications. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16, 4231–4241 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lai, Q. T. et al. Printing paper-derived ultralight and highly sensitive E-skin for health monitoring and information encryption. J. Alloy. Compd. 976, 173411 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, C. & Shakeel, H. In IEEE International Conference on Flexible and Printable Sensors and Systems. 1−3 (FLEPS, 2019).

  • Dai, Z. et al. Chemical corrosion resistance mechanism of fabric-like flexible plasma sensors. Appl. Surf. Sci. 684, 705–716 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, P. et al. Shape-designable and reconfigurable all-paper sensor through the sandwich architecture for pressure/proximity detection. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 49085–49095 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xue, H., Li, F., Zhao, H., Lin, X. & Zhang, T. A paper-based iontronic capacitive pressure sensor for human muscle motion monitoring. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 43, 2165–2168 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, S. et al. Paper-based supercapacitive pressure sensor for wrist arterial pulse waveform monitoring. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 53043–53052 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Arif, M. et al. based facile capacitive touch arrays for wireless mouse cursor control pad. Heliyon 9, 19447 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z. G., He, W. & Zhang, W. Bibliometric visual analysis of the poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) piezoelectric nanomaterial: research history, hotspots, and developmental trend. Front. Mater. 10 (2023).

  • Sappati, K. K. & Bhadra, S. Piezoelectric polymer and paper substrates: a review. Sensors 18, 3605 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lv, Y. et al. Paper-based piezoelectric sensors with an irregular porous structure constructed by scraping of 3D BaTiO3 particles/Poly(vinylidene fluoride) for micro pressure and human motion sensing. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 357, 249–263 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi, Y., He, R., Zhang, B. & Zhong, Z. Revisiting the phase diagram and piezoelectricity of lead zirconate titanate from first principles. Phys. Rev. B 109, 174104 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., Qin, C., Sun, Q. & Wang, M. Arrayed multi-layer piezoelectric sensor based on electrospun P (VDF-TrFE)/ZnO with enhanced piezoelectricity. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 379, 115970 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X., Tang, X., Ji, C., Wu, L. & Zhu, Y. Advances and future trends in nanozyme-based SERS sensors for food safety, environmental and biomedical applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 26, 709 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liang, A., Dong, W., Li, X. & Chen, X. A novel dual-mode paper fiber sensor based on laser-induced graphene and porous salt-ion for monitoring humidity and pressure of human. Chem. Eng. J. 502, 158184 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyyappan, M. Carbon Nanotubes: Science and Applications (CRC Press, 2004).

  • Immanuel, P. N., Huang, S.-J., Adityawardhana, Y. & Yen, Y. K. A review of paper-based sensors for gas, ion, and biological detection. Coatings 13, 1326 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rath, R. J. et al. A paper-based sensor capable of differentiating ammonia and carbon dioxide gas. Mater. Today Commun. 35, 105895 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ye, X. et al. Fully inkjet-printed chemiresistive sensor array based on molecularly imprinted sol-gel active materials. Acs Sens. 7, 1819–1828 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, G. H. et al. Boron nitride/carbon nanotube composite paper for self-activated chemiresistive detection. Sens. Actuators B-Chem. 355, 131273 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, L. et al. Bioinspired, superhydrophobic, and paper-based strain sensors for wearable and underwater applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 1967–1978 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gu, W. et al. Association of humidity and precipitation with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Allergy 5, 1483430 (2024). 1483430-.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, P. et al. Cellulose nanofiber/carbon nanotube dual network-enabled humidity sensor with high sensitivity and durability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 33229–33238 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Song, Z. et al. High-sensitivity paper-based capacitive humidity sensors for respiratory monitoring. IEEE Sens. J. 23, 2291–2302 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X. et al. Self-powered carbon ink/filter paper flexible humidity sensor based on moisture-induced voltage generation. Langmuir 38, 8232–8240 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Subki, A. S. R. A. et al. Effects of varying the amount of reduced graphene oxide loading on the humidity sensing performance of zinc oxide/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites on cellulose filter paper. J. Alloy. Compd. 926, 166728 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Parthasarathy, P. Graphene/polypyrrole/carbon black nanocomposite material ink-based screen-printed low-cost, flexible humidity sensor. Emergent Mater. 6, 2053–2060 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, W. Y., Goh, C. H., Yap, K. Z. & Ramakrishnan N. One-step fabrication of paper-based inkjet-printed graphene for breath monitor sensors. Biosensors-Basel 13 (2023).

  • Niu, G. et al. Pencil-on-paper humidity sensor treated with nacl solution for health monitoring and skin characterization. Nano Lett. 23, 1252–1260 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baranwal, J., Barse, B., Gatto, G., Broncova, G. & Kumar, A. Electrochemical sensors and their applications: a review. Chemosensors 10, 363 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. et al. Toward scalable fabrication of electrochemical paper sensor without surface functionalization. Npj Flex. Electron. 6, 12 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Koziel, S., Pietrenko-Dabrowska, A., Wojcikowski, M. & Pankiewicz, B. Machine-learning-based precise cost-efficient NO2 sensor calibration by means of time series matching and global data pre-processing. Eng. Sci. Technol.- Int. J.-Jestech 54, 101729 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmi, M. Kaasujen Amperometrinen Mittaus: Happi-Ja Ammoniakkimittaelementtien Vertailu (2020).

  • Saputra, H. A. Electrochemical sensors: basic principles, engineering, and state of the art. Monatshefte Chem.-Chem. Monthly 154, 1083–1100 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Beitollahi, H., Mohammadi, S. Z., Safaei, M. & Tajik, S. Applications of electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on modified screen-printed electrodes: a review. Anal. Methods 12, 1547–1560 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baharfar, M., Rahbar, M., Tajik, M. & Liu, G. Engineering strategies for enhancing the performance of electrochemical paper-based analytical devices. Biosens. Bioelectron. 167, 112506 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, I.-H., Kim, D. H. & Park, S. Electrochemical biosensors: Perspective on functional nanomaterials for on-site analysis. Biomater. Res. 24, 6 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y. et al. Pencil–paper on-skin electronics. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 117, 18292–18301 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, X. et al. Study on a paper-based piezoresistive sensor applied to monitoring human physiological signals. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 292, 66–70 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  • Duan, Z. et al. Facile, flexible, cost-saving, and environment-friendly paper-based humidity sensor for multifunctional applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 21840–21849 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, P. H., Nien, H. H. & Li, B. R. Wearable microfluidics for continuous assay. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 16, 181–203 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Noviana, E., Mccord, C. P., Clark, K. M., Jang, I. & Henry, C. S. Electrochemical paper-based devices: sensing approaches and progress toward practical applications (vol 20, 9, 2019). Lab Chip 20, 185 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Simoska, O. et al. Recent trends and advances in microbial electrochemical sensing technologies: an overview. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 30, 100762 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Valentine, C. J., Takagishi, K., Umezu, S., Daly, R. & De Volder, M. Paper-based electrochemical sensors using paper as a scaffold to create porous carbon nanotube electrodes. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 30680–30685 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Farzin, M. A., Abdoos, H. & Saber, R. Graphite nanocrystals coated paper-based electrode for detection of SARS-Cov-2 gene using DNA-functionalized Au@carbon dot core-shell nanoparticles. Microchem. J. 179, 107585 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruengpirasiri, P. et al. Graphene pseudoreference electrode for the development of a practical paper-based electrochemical heavy metal sensor. Acs Omega 9, 1634–1642 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarapoulouzi, M., Ortone, V. & Cinti, S. Heavy metals detection at chemometrics-powered electrochemical (bio) sensors. Talanta 244, 123410 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Amr, A. et al. Paper-based potentiometric sensors for nicotine determination in smokers’ sweat. Acs Omega 6, 11340–11347 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamel, A. H., Abd-Rabboh, H. S. & Bajaber, M. A. Non-enzymatic paper-based analytical device for direct potentiometric detection of urine creatinine. Microchim. Acta 191, 128 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, M. A. et al. A facile graphene conductive polymer paper based biosensor for dopamine, TNF-α, and IL-6 detection. Sensors 23 (2023).

  • Gandla, K. et al. Fluorescent-nanoparticle-impregnated nanocomposite polymeric gels for biosensing and drug delivery applications. Gels 9, 669 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. et al. A microfluidic paper-based fluorescent sensor integrated with a smartphone platform for rapid on-site detection of omethoate pesticide [J]. Food Chem. 463, 141205 (2025). 141205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulep, T. H. & Yoon, J. Y. Challenges in paper-based fluorogenic optical sensing with smartphones [J]. Nano Convergence 5, 14 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuryantini, A. Y., Nuryadin, B. W. & Umairoh, U. A paper based colorimeter using smartphone light sensor. IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1098, 062054 (2021).

  • Zhang, W.-Y., Zhang, H. & Yang, F.-Q. An economical and portable paper-based colorimetric sensor for the determination of hydrogen peroxide-related biomarkers. Chemosensors 10, 335 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Calabretta, M. M., Gregucci, D., Desiderio, R. & Michelini, E. Colorimetric paper sensor for food spoilage based on biogenic amine monitoring. Biosensors 13, 126 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordbar, M. M. et al. Visual diagnosis of COVID-19 disease based on serum metabolites using a paper-based electronic tongue. Analytica Chim. Acta 1226, 340286 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordbar, M. M. et al. Monitoring saliva compositions for non-invasive detection of diabetes using a colorimetric-based multiple sensor. Sci. Rep. 13, 16174 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Punnoy, P., Siripongpreda, T., Pisitkun, T., Rodthongkum, N. & Potiyaraj, P. Alternative platform for COVID-19 diagnosis based on AuNP-modified lab-on-paper. Analyst 148, 2767–2775 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahdi Bordbar, M. et al. A colorimetric pocket sensor for rapid detection of chemical injuries caused by sulfur mustard in the war veterans using plasma composition analysis. Microchemical J. 206, 111516 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Scroccarello, A. et al. Single-stroke metal nanoparticle laser scribing on cellulosic substrates for colorimetric paper-based device development. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12, 3196–3208 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Y., Feng, J., Hu, G., Zhang, E. & Yu, H. H. Colorimetric sensors for chemical and biological sensing applications. Sensors 23, 2749 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, A. et al. Ingenious fluorescent probes for biogenic amine and their applications in bioimaging and food spoilage detection. Food Chem. 454, 139714 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Theyagarajan, K., Lakshmi, B. A. & Kim, Y.-J. Enzymeless detection and real-time analysis of intracellular hydrogen peroxide released from cancer cells using gold nanoparticles embedded bimetallic metal organic framework. Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 245, 114209 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Y. et al. Dual-emission ratiometric fluorescence sensor based on in situ formation of MAPbBr3 perovskite nanocrystals in europium metal-organic frameworks for detection of methylamine gas. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 426, 137092 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X. et al. Bridging biological and food monitoring: a colorimetric and fluorescent dual-mode sensor based on N-doped carbon dots for detection of pH and histamine. J. Hazard. Mater. 470, 134271 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Arai, M. S., de Camargo, A. S. S. & Carrilho, E. In Paper-based Analytical Devices for Chemical Analysis and Diagnostics (eds William R. de Araujo & Thiago R. L. C. Paixão) 183–212 (Elsevier, 2022).

  • Tam, T. V., Hur, S. H., Chung, J. S. & Choi, W. M. Novel paper- and fiber optic-based fluorescent sensor for glucose detection using aniline-functionalized graphene dots. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 329, 129250 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, F., Xiao, M., Qi, J. & Zhu, L. based fluorescence sensor array with functionalized carbon quantum dots for bacterial discrimination using a machine learning algorithm. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 416, 1–10 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cai, Y. et al. Fabrication of test strips with gold-silver nanospheres and metal–organic frameworks: a fluorimetric method for sensing trace cysteine in HeLa cells. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 302, 127198 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tong, X., Lin, X., Duan, N., Wang, Z. & Wu, S. Laser-printed paper-based microfluidic chip based on a multicolor fluorescence carbon dot biosensor for visual determination of multiantibiotics in aquatic products. Acs Sens. 7, 3947–3955 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J. et al. A paper-based ratiometric fluorescence sensor based on carbon dots modified with Eu 3+ for the selective detection of tetracycline in seafood aquaculture water. Analyst 149, 1571–1578 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, S. X. et al. Highly deformable high-performance paper-based perovskite photodetector with improved stability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 31919–31927 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, T. et al. Pen-writing high-quality perovskite films and degradable optoelectronic devices. Rsc Adv. 12, 3924–3930 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, C. et al. Paper‐based lead sulfide quantum dot heterojunction photodetectors. Adv. Mater. Technol. 9, 2301723 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dave, M. et al. Paper-based flexible photodetector functionalized by WS2/Ti3C2Tx 2D-2D heterostructures. Opt. Mater. 150, 115244 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik, S. et al. Spray-lithography of hybrid graphene-perovskite paper-based photodetectors for sustainable electronics. Nanotechnology 35 (2024).

  • Shah, P. V. et al. High-performance flexible and broadband photodetectors on paper substrates using FeSnS bimetallic sulfide nanosheets. Optical Mater. 157, 116384 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawal, K. et al. Versatile photo-sensing ability of paper based flexible 2D-Sb0.3Sn0.7Se2 photodetector and performance prediction with machine learning algorithm. Opt. Mater. 152, 115547 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Varshney, U., Sharma, A., Singh, P. & Gupta, G. Revealing the photo-sensing capabilities of a super-flexible, paper-based wearable a-Ga2O3 self-driven ultra-high-performance solar-blind photodetector. Chem. Eng. J. 496, 153910 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, K. & Kularatna-Abeywardana, D. A review of supercapacitors: Materials, technology, challenges, and renewable energy applications. J. Energy Storage 96, 112563 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeanmairet, G., Rotenberg, B. & Salanne, M. Microscopic simulations of electrochemical double-layer capacitors. Chem. Rev. 122, 10860–10898 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Say, M. G. et al. Spray-coated paper supercapacitors. Npj Flex. Electron. 4, 14 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J., Gu, M. & Chen, X. Supercapacitors for renewable energy applications: a review. Micro Nano Eng. 21, 100229 (2023). 100229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, Y. A. et al. Shaping the future of energy: the rise of supercapacitors progress in the last five years. J. Energy Storage 98, 113040 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M. R., Afroj, S., Novoselov, K. S. & Karim, N. Smart electronic textile-based wearable supercapacitors. Adv. Sci. 9, 2203856 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Luo, W. et al. From powders to freestanding electrodes: assembly active particles into bacterial cellulose for high performance supercapacitors. Electrochim. Acta 387, 138560 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiong, C. et al. Fabrication of reduced graphene oxide-cellulose nanofibers based hybrid film with good hydrophilicity and conductivity as electrodes of supercapacitor. Cellulose 28, 3733–3743 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, H. et al. Scalable manufacturing of leaf‐like MXene/Ag NWs/cellulose composite paper electrode for all‐solid‐state supercapacitor. Ecomat 4, e12247 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiong, C. et al. Screen printing fabricating patterned and customized full paper-based energy storage devices with excellent photothermal, self-healing, high energy density and good electromagnetic shielding performances. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 97, 190–200 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S. et al. Chitosan modified graphene oxide with MnO2 deposition for high energy density flexible supercapacitors. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 259, 129223 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X. et al. Ultralow-power and radiation-tolerant complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor electronics utilizing enhancement-mode carbon nanotube transistors on paper substrates. Adv. Mater. 34, 2204066 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Puthanveettil, M. H. P. et al. Large-scale, reliable fabrication of indium oxide nanowire transistors on paper using a combination of high throughput solution processing techniques. Small Methods e2500235 (2025).

  • Gaspar, D. et al. Planar dual-gate paper/oxide field effect transistors as universal logic gates. Adv. Electron. Mater. 4 (2018).

  • Liu, X. et al. Calligraphy and kirigami/origami-inspired all-paper touch–temperature sensor with stimulus discriminability. Acs Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 1726–1735 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • link